Unit+IV+Terms

__The Western World__
SUEZ CANAL - An enormous facilitator of intercontinental trade which shortened the trip from Europe to Asia by thousands of miles. This drove the cost of transportation down, decreased travel time, and created an overseas trade boom with a similar effect as the railroads. It was completed in 1869 under Ismail, leader of Egypt. (769)

PANAMA CANAL - An enormous facilitator of intercontinental trade which joined the Pacific and Atlantic oceans at Panama. This was the only route that provided a straight shot through the Americas and eliminated the long journey around the tip of South America. (769)

GREAT MIGRATION - Millions of people (particularly energetic small farmers or skilled artisans trying to stay ahead of poverty and whose traditional way of life was threatened by too little land, estate agriculture and cheap factory-made goods) uprooted themselves from Europe and journeyed to foreign lands (especially colonies) in an effort to maintain or improve their economic / social status. This course of action was often a temporary lifestyle; many migrants returned to their former homes. Migration was an attempt for the "little guy" to "get out from under," and slowed greatly once people won basic political and social reforms, such as the right to vote and social security. (769, 772, 773)

THE NEW IMPERIALISM - The direct political and economic control of colonies. Driven by the catalyst of economics, new imperialism was a largely controversial force. It originated from the West's desire to expand and increase it's power. Each European nation sought to gain political and diplomatic might from conquering and imposing their will on the colonies of Africa and Asia. It was believed that the colonies would grant enormous amounts of wealth, large enough to boost competing European nations. Each country saw colonies as crucial to national security, military power, and international prestige. "There has never been a great power without colonies." (773 - 776)

QUININE - a medical treatment that was effective in controlling attacks of malaria: a disease which plagued Europeans who traveled to the tropics. An example of technological and military superiority fostering imperialist expansion. Other examples include the machine gun, the steam ship, and the international telegraph. Characteristics which evidence the large technological gap between the West and non-West. (775)

GOLD, GOD, GLORY - the three reasons for having colonies. It was believed that colonies would provide enough financial and investment facilitation to create an economic boom in European nations. The Europeans also believed that it was their mission to "civilize" primitive societies and spread Christianity. Colonies came with a connotation of diplomatic and political prestige. The European explorers believed that there would be **Gold** in the Americas, enough gold to make them prosperous and wealthy. They believed they could expand their religion (Christianity) by exploring other territories; this was the **God** aspect. They believed they could achieve **Glory** by colonizing the Americas and and expanding their nation. (774 - 776)

WHITE MAN'S BURDEN - a poem by Rudyard Kipling that spoke of the West's sacred "civilizing mission": //Take up the White Man's burden--// //Send forth the best ye breed--// //Go bind your sons to exile// //To serve your captives' need;// //To wait in heavy harness,// //On fluttered folk and wild--// //Your new-caught, sullen peoples,// //Half-devil and half-child.// (776) This was a poem written by Rudyard Kipling who mixed imperialism with the costs involved, and for this reason, it was called "white man's burden". The imperialists struggled.

SOCIAL DARWINISM - The application of evolution to human interactions. It is good for the strong to defeat the weak; it is just a matter of who is perceived as "weak." Pertains to European competition and the brutal racial competition. European nations were much more powerful than the those of Asia and Africa, and associated their technological and economic superiority with race. Europe, the dominant white race, had to seize colonies to show they were strong. Also, the conquest of inferior peoples was justified. Social Darwinism and harsh racial doctrines fostered imperialist expansion. (775)

J.A. HOBSON, //Imperialism// - a radical English economist who contended that the rush to acquire colonies was due to the economic needs of unregulated capitalism, particularly the need of the rich to find outlets for their surplus capital. He argued that the quest for empire diverted popular attention away from domestic reform and the need to reduce the great gap between rich and poor at home. Most people, however, were sold on the idea that imperialism was economically profitable for the homeland, and a broad and genuine enthusiasm for empire developed among the masses. Hobson's work, //Imperialism//, influenced Lenin and others. (776)

JOSEPH CONRAD, //Heart of Darkness// - a novelist who castigated the "pure selfishness" of Europeans in "civilizing" Africa. The main character in the novel, once a liberated European scholar, is corrupted by power in Africa and turns into a savage brute. Critics in Europe charged Europeans with applying a degrading double standard and failing to live up to their own noble ideals. At home Europeans had won or were winning representative government, individual liberties, and a certain equality of opportunity; in the colonies, however, Africans and Asians were treated like slaves and were discriminated against shamelessly. Only by renouncing imperialism and granting the freedoms idealized in Western society to the captives, could Europeans be worthy of their traditions. (776)

__The Islamic World__
THE TANZIMAT - a series of radical reforms, regulations, and orders forced upon by the Ottoman's precarious position with the opposing European powers, and intended to bring revolutionary modernization. The Ottoman empire was under heavy British pressure, and the reforms were designed to remake the empire on a western European model. The new decrees called for the equality of Muslims, Christians, and Jews before the law and in business, security of life and property, and a modernized administration and military. New commercial laws allowed free importation of foreign goods, //as British advisers demanded//, and permitted foreign merchants to operate freely throughout an economically dependent empire. Slavery was also drastically curtailed, though not abolished completely. The reform era brought about profound cultural changes. Although the Tanzimat permitted partial recovery, the Ottoman state and society failed to regain it's earlier strength due to:
 * 1) Implementation of the reforms required a new generation of well-trained and trustworthy officials which did not yet exist.
 * 2) The liberal reforms failed to halt the growth of nationalism among Christian subjects in the Balkans, which resulted in crises and defeats the undermined all reform efforts.
 * 3) The Ottoman initiatives did not curtail the appetite of Western imperialism.
 * 4) The elaboration - at least on paper - of equal rights for citizens and religious communities did not create greater unity within the state. Religious disputes increased and were worsened by the relentless interference of the Great Powers. This also distracted the government from its reform mission and split Muslims into various sects. (780)

SULTAN ABDÜLHAMID (r. 1876 - 1909) - a ruler of the Ottoman empire who gained the great support of the conservative Muslims and abandoned the model of European liberalism in his long and repressive reign. His rule consisted of declining international power and conservative tyranny, which led to a powerful resurgence of the modernizing impulse among the Young Turks. (780)

THE YOUNG TURKS - idealistic Turkish exiles in Europe and young army officers in Istanbul. These fervent patriots seized power in the revolution of 1908, and they forced the sultan to implement reforms. Failing to stop the rising tide of anti-Ottoman nationalism in the Balkans, the Young Turks helped to prepare the way for the birth of modern secular Turkey after the defeat and collapse of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. (780)

MUHAMMAD ALI (1769 - 1849) - an extraordinary Albanian-born Turkish general, who stepped into the power vacuum left by the French withdrawal from Egypt. He reformed the government and promoted modern industry. By the time he died, ha had established a strong and virtually independent Egyptian state to be ruled by his family on a hereditary basis within the Turkish empire. In order to pay for a modern army and industrialization, Muhammad Ali encouraged the development of commercial agriculture that was geared towards the European market. Prior to this, Egyptian peasants had grown food on state on land. Offered the possibility of profits from export agriculture, members of Ali's rule began carving large private landholdings out of the state domain, and forced the peasants to grow cash crops for European markets. Estate owners "modernized" agriculture, but to the detriment of the peasants well-being. Muhammad Ali's policies of modernization attracted growing numbers of Europeans to the Nile. Europeans enjoyed important commercial and legal privileges and formed an economic elite. (780 - 782)

ISMAIL (r. 1863 - 1879) - the grandson of Muhammad Ali, Ismail was a westernizing autocrat. He dreamed of using European technology and capital to modernize Egypt and build a vast empire in northeastern Africa. One of his main concentrations was agriculture and he caused exports to Europe to soar. He completed the Suez Canal, and shortened the journey from Europe to Asia by thousands of miles; traffic boomed. Like his hero, Napoleon III, Ismail wanted an impressive, up-to-date capital city. A modernized Cairo with Western facets, was built in with the existing tradition of Muslim heritage; "My country is no longer in Africa, we now form a part of Europe." Cultural and intellectual changes accompanied the political and economic ones. However, Ismail's impatient ambitions led to enormous debt. France and Britain intervened politically to protect the European investors who held the Egyptian bonds. They forced Ismail to appoint French and British commissioners to oversee Egyptian finances so that the Egyptian debt would be paid in full. It implies direct European political control: Europeans were going to determine the state budget and in effect rule Egypt. (782, 783)

JAMAL al-DIN al-AFGHANI (1838 - 1897) - a teacher and writer who lived in Cairo, and preached Islamic regeneration and defense against Western/Christian aggression. Regeneration, he argued, required the purification of religious belief, the unity of all Muslim peoples, and a revolutionary overthrow of corrupt Muslim leaders. An inspiring radical, al-Afghani believed that Islam embodied modern rationalism, and he said that everyone could find self-worth and a sense of equality in Islam. (783)

MUHAMMAD ABDUH (1849 - 1905) - a more moderate leader who searched for Muslim rejuvenation and launched the modern Islamic reform movement. Abduh concluded that Muslims should return to the purity of the earliest, most essential doctrines of Islam and reject later additions that could limit Muslim creativity; this would permit a flexible, reasoned approach to change, social questions, and foreign ideas. (783)

EGYPTIAN NATIONALIST PARTY - the result of a violent nationalistic reaction among Egyptian religious leaders, intellectuals, and army officers, caused by foreign financial control. The Egyptian Nationalist Party was formed in 1879. Continued diplomatic pressure resulted in bloody anti-European riots. "An irreconcilable war existed between the Egyptians and the English." (783)

__Sub-Saharan Africa__
SLAVE TRADE - until about the 1860s, it was the staple trade resource for Africa. The most important development in West Africa before European conquest was the decline of the Atlantic slave trade (along with the development of the export of indigenous resources). It forced migration of millions of Africans. Europeans viewed the slave trade as a profitable business practice. The negative consequences of the expanding trade predominated in Africa, because warfare increased and enslavement spread. In the 1800s, Britain started a large effort to stop slave trade, and pressured other nations to do the trade. (784,785) SO NOT LEGIT!

PALM OIL - a byproduct made from the abundant, West African resource, the palm tree. It was highly encouraged by Britain to distract the rest of the world from the slave trade. The sale of palm oil served the self interest of industrializing Europe. The first good, cheap soap was made that ordinary people could use, and mass-produced candles were made. This is an example of successful trade in tropical products. Another example is the peanut industry, because small, independent African farmers could compete effectively with large-scale producers in growing peanuts but not in producing pal oil and kernels. (784,785) TOO LEGIT TO QUIT

SOKOTO CALIPHATE - an example of the general pattern of the spread of Islam. A powerful Islamic revival brought reform and revolutionary change from within to the western and eastern Sudan, until this process was halted by European military conquest at the end of the 1800s. Muslim scholars and fervent religious leaders arose to wage successful jihads, or religious wars, against both animist rulers and Islamic states that they deemed corrupt. Usuman dan Fodio, an inspiring Muslim teacher, won the support of herders and peasants in the Muslim state of Gobir in the northern Sudan. After the leaders of Gobir attacked Usuman's religious community, Usuman rallied the suport of his followers and launched a jihad. They successfully overthrew the Hausa rulers and inspired more jihads in the Sudan. Usuman founded the new Sokoto caliphate. The caliphate had profound consequences for Africa and the Sudan. First, the caliphate was based on Islamic history and law, which gave sub-Saharan Africa a sophisticated written constitution. This government of laws, not men, provided stability and made Sokoto one of the most prosperous regions in tropical Africa. Second, because of Sokoto and other revivalist states, Islam became more deeply rooted in sub-Saharan Africa than ever before. Islam became an unquestioned part of everyday life and culture; women also gained more rights like, education. Finally, Islam had always approved of slavery for non-Muslims and Muslim heretics, and "the jihads created a new slaving frontier on the basis of rejuvenated Islam." (787, 788)

LEOPOLD II - an energetic, strong-willed monarch with a lust for distant territory, who played a crucial role in the imperialist movement. Through the work of his financial syndicate, Henry M. Stanley, he was able to establish trading stations, sign "treaties" with African chiefs, and plant Leopold's flag along the Congo River. Leopold's actions sparked an imperialist movement among other European nations, as they feared they would lose out on a chance for power. Both France and Britain took drastic action, and followed the example of Leopold. It established a new model of imperial conquest and formal political control. By 1833, Europe had caught "African fever." There was a gold-rush mentality, and the race for territory was on. (789)

THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA - between 1880 and 1900 Britain, France, Germany, and Italy scrambled for African possessions as if their national livelihoods were at stake. By 1902, only miniscule parts of Africa remained for the taking. Important events and individuals that stimulated the rise of include Leopold II, and the persistence of intracontinental slave trade. The public was led to believe that European rule would end this tragedy and therefore gave much more support to the imperialist movement. Eventually, the scramble for Africa was stimulated by the actions of Leopold II, and it turned into a frenzy of establishing colonies in Africa. (788, 789)

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884 - 1885) - an international conference on Africa, arranged by Premier Jules Ferry of France and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck of Germany, the Berlin Conference was designed to lay down some basic rules for this new and dangerous game of imperialist competition. The Berlin Conference, made up solely of European nations (seeing as no African leaders were even invited), established the principle that European claims to African territory had to rest on "effective occupation" in order to be recognized by other states. This meant that Europeans would push relentlessly into interior regions from all sides and that no single European power would be able to claim the entire continent. The conference recognized Leopold's personal rule over a neutral Congo free state and declared all of the Congo basin a free-trade zone. The conference also agreed to stop slavery and the slave trade in Africa. The Berlin Conference coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power, and as political agitation for expansion increased, like many other European countries of the time, Bismarck pulled an abrupt about-face, and Germany established protectorates over a number of small African kingdoms. (789)

EFFECTIVE OCCUPATION - a rule established during the Berlin Conference that meant that Europeans would push relentlessly into interior regions from all sides and that no single European power would be able to claim the entire continent of Africa. You can’t say "dibs," but you actually be able to occupy it and defend it. Inspired an increased and frenzied scramble for Africa based on competition. Effective occupation basically started the race for territory in Africa, and provided the only viable solution to imperialism. (789)

MUHAMMAD AHMAD (1844 - 1885) - a pious leader who declared himself the Mahdi, or expected savior. Put up a great fight against British forces in eastern Sudan with a force of fiercely independent Muslims, who felt the full force of Islamic revival. The Mahdi called for restoration of uncorrupted Islam, and he led a revolt against foreign control of Egypt. In 1885, the Mahdi's army massacred a British force and took the city of Khartoum. His followers maintained the Islamic state that had been established, and the British retreated to Cairo. The Sudanese people were deeply committed to Islam. For them the struggle to preserve Islam and the struggle to preserve freedom were one and the same thing. (791)

MAHDI - the expected savior of the Muslims, embodied my Muhammad Ahmad. (791)

BATTLE OF OMDURMAN (1898) - a battle fought between Britain and Sudanese Muslims that represents the way many battles between Europeans and Africans were fought. The British force moved cautiously along the Nile River, building railroads to facilitate fast transportation and to supply arms and reinforcements as they traveled. Finally, in 1898, these troops met their foe at Omdurman, where Sudanese Muslims armed with spears charged time and time again, only to be cut down by the recently invented machine gun. The fate of the Muslim force at Omdurman was eventually inflicted on most colonized peoples who resisted European rule: they were crushed by vastly superior military force. (791)

AFRIKANERS (BOERS) - a group of Dutch settlers that allied with the British forces in a 3-cornered battle in order to gain more land in Africa. The Afrikaners were ranchers and farmers and during the Great Trek they moved towards the interior of the continent for better land. The Afrikaners treated Africans as racial inferiors, destined by god for labor. (792)

ZULUS - a strong south-African civilization led by Shaka, who fought against the Dutch and British in order to secure their land. After these many battles, the Zulus still remained the majority, but they were an exploited one. (792)

SHAKA (r. 1818 - 1828) - a talented Zulu leader that revolutionized African warfare; he managed to create "the largest and most powerful African society in southern Africa in the nineteenth century. Drafted by age groups until they were forty years old, and placed in highly disciplined regiments, Shaka's warriors perfected the use of a new short, stabbing spear in deadly hand-to-hand combat. Shaka's warriors often destroyed their African enemies completely, sowing chaos and sending refugees fleeing in all directions. Shaka's wars also led to the consolidation of the Zulu, Swahili, and Sotho peoples into stronger states in southern Africa. By 1880 these states were largely subdued by Dutch and British invaders, but only after many hard-fought frontier wars. (792)

THE GREAT TREK (1836) - beginning in 1834, the British gradually abolished slavery in the Cape Colony and introduced colorblind legislature to protect African labor. In 1836, these measures led about ten thousand Afrikaner cattle ranchers and farmers to make their so-called Great Trek northward into the interior. Another group of Afrikaners moved eastward into Natal, defeated a Zulu army, and declared an independent republic. But Britain refused to recognize Afrikaner rule and annexed Natal in 1845, north of the Orange River. Over the next thirty years Afrikaner and British settlers, who often fought and usually detested each other, reached a mutually advantageous division of southern Africa. The British ruled strategically valuable coastal colonies, and the Afrikaners controlled their ranch-land republics in the interior. (792)

SOUTH AFRICAN WAR (1899 - 1902) - Britain's imperial campaign. The discovery of incredibly rich deposits of diamonds in 1867 and later gold revolutionized the economy of southern Africa, making possible large-scale industrial capitalism and transforming the lives of all its peoples. Led by Cecil Rhodes, the De Beers mining company emerged and monopolized the world's diamond industry. The immense amounts of diamonds and gold required big foreign investment, European engineering expertise, and an enormous labor force. The "color-bar" system of the diamond fields, however, gave whites the high-paying "desk" jobs, and the black Africans received the dangerous, low-wage jobs below the surface. As the demand for labor soared and southern Africa became the world's leading gold producer by a wide margin, the industrializing economy pulled in migratory workers from all over the region. Showing an immense interest towards the mining industry, imperialist, Cecil Rhodes took Africa by storm, using missionaries and a front company chartered by British government to force African chiefs to accept British protectorates and managed to add Southern and Northern Rhodesia to the British Empire. Rhodes and the imperialist clique then succeeded in starting the South African War, Britain's greatest imperial campaign in Africa. Britain completely annihilated Afrikaner forces within a year, but initiated a war that consisted of 450,000 British troops and a "total war" of burned farms and deadly concentration camps for Afrikaners in order to crush the tiny guerilla force of 80,000 Afrikaners. The long bitter war divided whites in South Africa and sapped the imperial spirit of Britain. (792)

Berlin Conference- met in Berlin between leaders in Europe (Bismarck of Germany and Ferry of France)to discuss European colonization in Africa. No African representatives were present. The European powers decided to have "effective occupation" in Africa. This meant that they would all pursue colonies relentlessly, but would not allow one power to control all of Africa. The powers agreed to let Leopold II rule the Congo which would become a free trade zone for Europe. They would also work to reduce the slave trade.This started the race for European countries to go full throttle in attacking Africa and gaining land.

 Effective Occupation- concept that the European powers agreed to at the Berlin Conference that stated that Europe would wholeheartedly go after colonies in Africa while not allowing one country to monopolize the entire continent.This states that you can't call "dibs" on a territory, you actually have to be there.

Muhammad Ahmad (1844-1885 - leader in Sudan who proclaimed himself Mahdi, or "expected savior" in 1881. He called for the restoration of uncorrupt Muslims to rise against the European colonists. In 1885 he led a huge revolt against foreign control in Egypt. His army massacred Britain's and gained major ground for the native Muslims retaking the city Khartoum. Although he died in 1885 his followers still fought to protect their traditions and land.

Mahdi - "Expected savior". term that Muhammad Ahmad used to title himself as he helped lead Sudanese Muslims in a massive revolt over foreign control in Egypt

Battle of Omdurman (1898) - battle where British General H. Horatio led his troops up the Nile River where they met a group of rebelling Muslims looking to retake their land. Due to Britain's extreme advantage by way of machine gun, they utterly annihilated the opposition in a brutal battle of industrial weapons vs. tradition warfare.

Afrikaners (Boers) - Group of Dutch settlers in Africa who allied with the British in 1815 to wage a war in order to gain more territory

Shaka (r. 1818-1828) - Zulu leader who revolutionized African warfare by drafting warriors and utilizing the short stabbing spear. His victories led to the consolidation of the Zulu, Swahili, and Sotho peoples into stronger states. Although he put up a brilliant effort he was eventually subdued by British forces who had technology on their side.

The Great Trek (1836)- When Afrikaners in Cape Colony migrated east and northeast in order to escape British control. Many moved to Natal where they defeated the Zulus and were able to create their own, independent state. However the British refused to recognize their rule and annexed Natal in 1845.

South African War (1899-1902) - War led by Cecil Rhodes who believed in English superiority. He defeated Afrikaner forces but the results led to divided whites in South Africa and the imperial split in Britain. The Afrikaners were promised a representative government, which they ultimately received, but not without major segregation.

The Union of South Africa (established in 1910) - the creation of a modern, yet segregated society between the Afrikaners and two other states in southern Africa

__**Sub-Saharan Africa**__
**Slave Trade: **  It had at one time been a huge deal for Africa because tons upon tons of slaves were exported as a buisness, however slave trade pretty much disappeared by 1860 
 * Palm Oil:** The British used palm oil as a replacement for slave trade since they abolished it in their own country. This caused palm oil to grow increasingly high in demand. The good could also be manufactured into cheap, easy soap that the new cleaner Europe could use.


 * Sokoto Caliphate:** Founded by Usuuman dan Fodio, it was the main revivalist state. This means that it was a state that believed that old African religions and customs were old, and that they should all convert to Islam. The state also used Islamic history to base their government, so a constitution was made, and the governments laws made stability.

The Scramble for Africa: **A period of time between 1880 and 1900, when the European nations scrambled to colonize as much as Africa as they could. In that twenty years all of Africa was almost completely taken over.**  =__**India**__= British East India Company- Britain's system of entering India and setting up a worldwide trading port. Originally the motives behind this company were purely economic- that is, Britain wanted to use the raw materials in India in order to make a profit. Eventually Britain would realize the power it could achieve in attaining political, as well as economical control of India, and moved further in their imperialist attempts.

Sepoys- Indian troops that allied with Britain. They were well trained and armed with modern rifles. They revolted in the Great Mutiny of 1857 against Britain's westernization methods that threatened their traditionalist ways.

The Great Mutiny/Revolt (1857)- Uprising of sevoys against Britain's imperial control. Britain was allowing the use of animal grease, permitting low caste people to participate in the army, and raised taxes. The sevoys strongly opposed these grievances and revolted to show their anger. However, the sevoys were crushed by Britain and its other Indian allies. This resulted in much stricter British rule, and ultimately, political dominance in India.

Indian Civil Service- the elite in India under British rule. Although this technically gave Indians a chance at being part of government, it was highly unequal. Only 1 out of the 916 members at one time was actually from India. No matter what, whites were considered superior in the civil service. India judges were not even allowed to try white criminal suspects. Only those Indians who could afford education had a shot of passing the exam. This created a new system that appealed to economic elites, NOT the traditional elites.

Indian National Congress- A result of a more westernized India that was influenced by newly educated Indians who wanted equality and liberty within their country. They wanted more opportunities in the ICS, as well as equality across the caste system. This group was divided in two: radicals and moderates. Radicals wanted complete independence for India while moderates would have settled with autonomy.

__**China**__
The Opium War- Britain was exporting opium to China, who's population was becoming addicted to the illegal substance. It was a major problem for Chinese government, but when they tried to retaliate against Britain they were thwarted by the more industrialized country. China tried to convince Portugal to side with them and shut down trading with Britain, and upon hearing this, Britain fired back and seized China's ports. This war was settled with the Treaty of Nanjing.

Treaty of Nanjing (1842)- Treaty that resulted in Britain's defeat over China in the Opium War. In this treaty China had to open up 5 ports of international trade, agree to a fixed tariff of 5%, pay an indemnity of 50 million ounces of silver, and cede Hong Kong to Britain. In this treaty was both a clause on extraterritoriality and a "most-favored nation" clause. The first meant that British living in China did not have to comply with Chinese rule, rather refer back to British government. The second meant that whenever a nation extracted a new privilege from China, it was extended to Britain.

Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864)- revolt in China led by Hong Xiuquan, who established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. He believed that he was the brother of Jesus and that China should modernize and turn to Christianity. His ideas were to abolish footbindng and institute equality of men and women as well as equality of landholding. In order to suppress this rebellion, the Manchus had to turn to the more westernized, scholarly Chinese. This act showed that they were no longer high and mighty, and were dependent on westernization. 20 million people lost their lives in this war.

Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864)- leader of Taiping Rebellion who believed he was Jesus' younger brother. He never passed his civil service exams and instead went on to be a religious leader. He favored the abolition of footbindng and movement to Christianity in China.

Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)-war between China and Japan in which China was defeated by the more modernized Japan. As a result of this war China had to give up territories, pay an indemnity, and permit Japan to open factories within China. This defeat humiliated China and opened up a scramble for European powers to do the same as Japan had.

Boxer Rebellion- a secret society who blamed China's recent struggles upon westernization, particularly missionaries trying to convert the Chinese into Christians. The empress allied with them and rose up against European influence. Yet again China was defeated by outside countries, including Japan. The country had to pay a massive indemnity as well as abolish the civil service exam for five years.

=Japan= Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1867)- the ruling class during an open period in Japan when there was a strict class system of domains. Although the Tokugawa Shogunate was not the emperor, he held the real power of the country.

Gunboat Diplomacy- the regime that resulted in "opening" Japan to foreign powers. This created a complex society in which the real power lay in the hands of the Tokugawa Shogun. Eventually samurais would rebel against this foreign rule and bring about the Meiji Restoration.

The Meiji Restoration (1867)- a major revolt in Japan against foreign control that was an extremely pivotal point in Japanese history. The Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown and there was a return to direct power by the emperor. During this time major reforms were made to Japan. The country westernized both politically and socially, developing the first constitution in an eastern country. Through these reforms Japan would avoid the unfortunate fate of China's being eaten up by the west and in fact become an imperial power itself.

The Russo-Japanese War- war in 1904 in which Japan clashed with Russia in a spot of land in China for colonization. The Japanese overcame Russia and emerged with the protectorate of Fort Arthur in China. This led to Japan becoming a major imperial power, and a force to be reckoned with by the west.

=Latin America=

Creoles- people living and born in the Americas who have Spanish descent. They were considered second from the top of the class system in Latin America, just below the Peninsulares. Originally they rallied against the rule of Peninsulares, only to turn their back on allies of the lower classes to form an aristocracy of their own.

Peninsulares- the "purest" of the social classes in Latin America. This group was made up of Spanish-born people living in the Americas. They were of the highest class, and felt extreme racism towards less pure, American born peoples.

Mestizos-people of mixed Spanish and Indian descent living in the Americas.

Mulattos- people of mixed African and Spanish descent living in the Americas.

Audiencias- the highest judicial body in the Americas that served as a council to the viceroys. It consisted of mainly Peninsulares with a minority of 13% creoles.

Toussaint L’Ouverture (1744-1803)- Mulatto who was a leader of major revolt in Haiti. Overthrew prejudiced European rule and took city of Santo Domingo. This leader named himself emperor and imposed many reforms in Haiti including the abolition of slavery. Eventually in an attempt to negotiate peace with France, he was tricked and taken into custody in Europe where he spent the remainder of his life in jail.

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830)- leader who helped bring about independence of modern day Columbia. He summoned the conference of American republics at Panama which helped organize the Bolivian government as well as place himself as head of Peru. Despite his efforts in aiding in Columbia's independence, the country was too splintered for much progress to be made under his rule and he went into exile.

Gran Columbia- the land of "Greater Columbia" under the reign of Simon Bolivar from 1819-1830. It was independent of Spain and helped other colonies in the area, such as Venezuela and Peru, gain their independence.

White/Mestizo/Mulatto/Negro/Indigena/Asiatico

Neocolonialism- the form of imperialism when Europe withdrew their political powers from the Americas and instead rested firmly on the economies of the colonies. Although this started as a result of American colonies gaining independence, it eventually spread to colonies worldwide.

Panama Canal: An influential canal that once completed allowed for increased trade throughout the Americas. The ships could now travel much faster to other countries in the America's, and to Europe.

Haciendas- large plantation like estates in Latin America on which debt slavery was common of native, lower class peoples. Although slavery had been abolished in many of the colonies, lower class citizens were forced into so much debt that they had to work virtually as slaves on these plantations.